6. Literary Genres and Features (The Gospels, Parables, and Acts)

Literary Genres and Features: The Gospels

There are four inspired accounts of Jesus’ life, written by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. These have the label “Gospel” (euangelion, good news) attached to them. The Gospels have historically been understood to be biographies of Jesus’ life. Even though the Gospels are historical narrative and record real history, they are not intended to be historical textbooks in the usual sense. Sometimes, events are presented out of chronological order. There are intentional omissions of large sections of Jesus’ life (cf. John 20:30-31). Disproportionate focus is placed on certain events.¹ Interestingly, the recorded style of speech also varies between gospel writers, such that in the Gospel of John, Jesus seems to speak in the same way the John writes.²

The Gospels are not written the same way as modern historical biographies—where, in the latter, events are presented chronologically, there is a balanced selection of material, quotations are given verbatim, etc.³ This is because the Gospels have a different aim. They are intended to convey theological truths rather than to provide a play-by-play reenactment of past events. The Gospels aim to provide an inspired presentation of the facts of history, rather than just a bland recounting of the bare facts. As such, when we encounter apparent “differences” between the gospels, these can be helpful aids rather than obstacles.

“It is not an accident that God gave us four gospels, even though there is much overlap among them. The life and message of Jesus is so rich that we need more than one perspective… It is misguided to overlook the differences among the gospels or [to] try to minimize them. We should rather focus our attention on those distinctives and appreciate what each writer is trying to tell us… The gospel writers are both historians and theologians. They recount facts, but they also interpret them so that we may believe.”⁴

The gospels writers wrote as both historians and theologians. Contrary to what liberal scholars may say, it’s not possible to receive the religious teachings of the Bible without also accepting its historical claims.

“In the case of the Gospels, every indication we have is that the writers expected their statements to be taken as historical. Luke, in particular, as he begins both his gospel and the book of Acts, makes that purpose quite explicit (see Luke 1:1-4 and Acts 1:1-3).”⁵

For the reasons above, it is probably best to categorize the Gospels as theological biographies.⁶

Authoritative. The gospels tell us that Jesus taught the people authoritatively as God in their midst (Matthew 7:28-29). He spoke prophetically with God’s authority, not according to human rabbinic tradition in contrast to the contemporary “teachers of the law” (Mark 1:22). This contrast helps us to understand passages like Mark 7:1-13 (similarly recorded in Matthew 15:1-7).⁷ Here, the Pharisees complained that Jesus’ disciples failed to ceremonially wash their hands before eating. This ritual was part of the “tradition of the elders” (v. 5), rather than a biblical command.

“A basic feature of rabbinic thought is the emphasis on the twofold Torah: the written law (i.e., the Hebrew Bible, but especially the five books of Moses) and the oral law (the traditions of the elders)… Much of [the oral law] consisted of debates dealing with technical legal questions, which led to the development of new regulations. Ironically, many of these [oral] regulations had the effect of blunting the force of biblical commandments… in a way that made them, in effect, more ‘fulfillable.’”⁸

Thus, the oral tradition of the Pharisees created loopholes that allowed the law to be kept, humanly-speaking. The oral tradition was placed alongside of what was written in the Scriptures. One such example was Corban, mentioned in Mark 7:10-12 where clear Scripture was obscured by human tradition (cf. Colossians 2:23). Jesus had very little patience for this kind of hermeneutic. Jesus’ teaching did not lessen nor abolish the written law but instead intensified it by correctly interpreting the intention behind the law (Matthew 5:17, 20, 48).

“Over against the rabbinic tendency to relax the divine standard, Jesus’ disciples can never be satisfied with less than perfection. This means that Jesus’ true disciples are ever conscious of their sin and thus learn to rely, not on their own moral strength, but on God’s grace, praying with the tax collector, ‘God, have mercy on me, a sinner’ (Luke 18:13).”⁹

Fulfillment of the Old Testament. Old Testament prophecies, typologies, and expectations are fulfilled in Jesus. For instance, scholars have pointed out that the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5 presents Jesus as a new Moses who, from a mountain top, delivers the law to his people.Ibid, p. 169.[/mfn]

The Moses-Exodus motif is setup early-on.¹⁰ Even before Jesus is born, we are told about Joseph, a faithful Israelite who receives dreams from God (Matthew 1:18-25; cf. Genesis 37:1-11). We are then introduced to Elizabeth (Elisheba), the wife of the priest and a descendent of Aaron (Luke 1:5; cf. Exodus 6:23). Mary (Miriam) is a courageous woman who protects the promised rescuer when he is just a baby (Luke 1:26-38; cf. Exodus 2:1-10) and she later sings prophetically of God’s mighty act of deliverance (Luke 1:46-55; cf. Exodus 15:20-21). More similarities are presented between the Exodus and the nativity stories. Both take place when Israel was being oppressed by a foreign power; both recount the bravery of women who are instrumental to the survival of God’s people; an evil king is bent on killing baby boys in both accounts; signs appear in the night sky; gentiles give gifts; God’s chosen people escape and re-enter the land after the oppressor dies.

Drawing further connection, Jesus is presented as a walking tabernacle (John 1:14-18).¹¹ Jesus, like Israel with Moses, goes through the waters of baptism (Matthew 3:13-17; Mark 1:9-11; Luke 3:21-22; cf. 1 Corinthians 10:1-2) and immediately afterwards (Mark 1:12), he was subjected to intense testing in the wilderness—40 days for Jesus and 40 years for Israel and Moses (Matthew 4:1-11; Mark 1:13; Luke 4:1-13; cf. Numbers 32:13).

“The specific temptations echo those that unraveled Israel: grumbling about the lack of food, testing God by demanding a miracle, bowing down to false gods, and seizing his inheritance before it was time. (It is no coincidence that in all three of his temptations Jesus quotes Deuteronomy, the sermon Moses preached to remind Israel of their need for obedience [from Deuteronomy 6-8]). But Jesus succeeds where Israel failed.”¹²

When Jesus returns from the wilderness, he calls his disciples, paralleling Moses’ setting up elders to govern the people of Israel (Matthew 4:12-22; cf. Exodus 18). Jesus then leads multitudes to a mountain where he teaches them what it means to obey God, just like Moses (Matthew 5-7; cf. Exodus 19-24). Jesus showed great compassion upon the masses because they were “like sheep having no shepherd” (Matthew 9:36; cf. Numbers 27:17) and appointed his disciples to help them (Matthew 9:37-10:4; cf. Numbers 27:18-23). Later, Jesus expanded the group to 70, just like Moses (Luke 10:1-20; cf. Numbers 11:16-30).¹³

Eschatological. Another key feature of Jesus’ teaching is that it has an eschatological or “end-times” focus. Jesus is the fulfillment of everything that the Old Testament was pointing towards and he brings his people to a new-creation existence. Jesus inaugurated the kingdom of God (Mark 1:15; cf. Matthew 12:28), fulfilled the Old Testament prophecies (Matthew 1:22; 2:15, 17, 23; 4:14; etc.), and has ushered in the last days (Luke 4:18-19; cf. Isaiah 42:1).

Literary features. The Gospels use many of the same literary devices that we have already studied in previous genres, including parallelisms, similes, metaphors, chiasms, etc. But there are some additional distinctive literary features that are characteristic of the Gospels. The first one is the sandwich (which we previously learned about in an earlier lesson). Recall, the sandwich is one of Mark’s favorite literary devices, such that it is sometimes called the “Markan sandwich.”¹⁴ This essentially tells “a story within a story” where both stories are theologically linked.¹⁵ Some examples of Markan sandwiches are the following:¹⁶

A: Rejection by Jesus’ family (3:20-21)

B: Rejection by the Jewish leaders (3:22-30)

A: Rejection by Jesus’ family (3:31-34)

A: Jairus’ daughter (5:21-24)

B: Woman with the issue of blood (5:25-34)

A: Jairus’ daughter (5:35-43)

A: Cursing of the fig tree (11:12-14)

B: Temple judgment (11:15-19)

A: Cursing of the fig tree (11:20-21)

We previously looked at Mark 11:12-21 together. This time, we will focus on Mark 5:21-43.¹⁷ The story starts with Jairus who pursues Jesus and falls before him, pleading for his daughter’s life (vv. 22-23). Then suddenly, the story is interrupted by a woman who had been hemorrhaging for twelve years (v. 25). The woman is desperate for healing and reaches out to Jesus (vv. 27-28) and is healed (v. 29). The result of all of this is that Jesus gives her true peace (v. 34). The story then swings ack to Jairus and his daughter (v. 35). Jairus’ worst nightmare has happened and his daughter has died. Yet Jairus must have the same faith as the woman who was just healed (vv. 34, 36). Jesus, the Lord and giver and life, raises Jairus’ daughter from the dead (v. 41). The similarities between the two stories are brought out. The woman who was hemorrhaged suffered twelve years (v. 25), the same length of time as Jairus’ daughter’s age (v. 42). Both the woman and Jairus’ daughter were of low status and unclean (Leviticus 15:25-28; Numbers 19:11). Jesus touches them; but instead of Jesus becoming unclean, he makes both of them clean, restores their lives, and brings them back to fellowship again (vv. 34, 43).

Literary Genres and Features: Parables

Within the Gospels, we also find parables. These are essentially extended metaphors or similes, and they rank among the most famous and popular parts of Scripture.¹⁸ Parables are a type of “embedded genre” and always occur as part of a larger context.¹⁹ They are most commonly associated with the Gospels (but can be found in other historical narratives and within wisdom literature too). They bear some similarity with riddles and fables.²⁰

Although parables are a distinctive feature of Jesus’ teaching,²¹ they are not entirely unique to the New Testament. For instance, two distinctive parables found in the Old Testament include Nathan’s story of a rich man who stole a poor man’s only lamb to feed a visiting guest—a parable that confronted David with his act of adultery with Bathsheba and his murdering of Uriah (2 Samuel 12:1-4); and, the Preacher who told the story of a poor man saved a besieged town with wisdom, but nobody cared to remember him afterwards—a lesson that wisdom is better than strength, even if people disregard it (Ecclesiastes 9:13-15; cf. 4:13-16).²²

Even though many parables initially come across as simple stories, parables are perhaps one of the most challenging parts of Scripture to properly interpret! Part of the problem is the fact that, throughout the history of church, parables have been variously interpreted, often arbitrarily, thus adding to the confusion.²³ This means, proper hermeneutics are needed to understand the parables no less than other parts of Scripture.²⁴

Many parables appear simple at first, but they often have the effect of leaving their hearers perplexed, even among Jesus’ disciples (Mark 4:13). When he was asked to explain the parable of the sower by his disciples, Jesus responded: “To you it has been given to know the mystery of the kingdom of God; but to those who are outside, all things come in parables, so that ‘Seeing they may see and not perceive, and hearing they may hear and not understand; lest they should turn, and their sins be forgiven them’” (Mark 4:11-12; quoting Isaiah 6:9-10).²⁵

This seems to mean that parables serve a dual purpose: grace and judgment. Jesus privately discloses the meaning of his parables to his disciples for their benefit, while veiling the meaning from others such that they are further hardened in their unbelief.²⁶ This type of split reception is characteristic of Jesus’ entire ministry, even from the beginning (Luke 2:34). He is both the cornerstone (Matthew 21:42-44) and rock of stumbling (Romans 9:32-33). He is both the fragrance of life to those who believe and the aroma of death to those who are perishing (2 Corinthians 2:14-16).²⁷

It is important to note that, even though parables serve to divide the hearers, this is not the onlyreason that parables are given. Parables have multiple uses. Other possible reasons include the fact that parables are simple (where a general audience can follow the story easily), concrete (as they are often grounded in everyday realities), and serve to disarm the hearer (such that the hearer will remove himself from his own situation, see the truth, make a correct judgment about the situation, then discover the ultimate significance often at the very end—as was the case with King David when he was listening to Nathan’s parable in 2 Samuel 12:1-10).²⁸ On the last point above, parables often go often conventional or natural boundaries, and the resulting “shock factor” becomes a linchpin for teachable moment:

Take, for instance, the parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32) where the father runs out to meet his son (verse 20) and reinstates him as soon as the son confesses his sin (verses 21-22). “No ancient, Middle-Eastern, well-to-do head of household would have run to greet a wayward son (a most undignified action) or interrupt him before he completed his speech of repentance, but God goes to greater extents than human fathers in trying to seek and save the lost. Because the majority of the parable… draws on ordinary experiences of life to illustrate analogous truths about spiritual life, the unrealistic portion stands out all the more in comparison.”²⁹

Parables usually feature multiple characters.³⁰ It is best to consider the perspective of each of the main characters in our quest to understand the “one central truth” of the parable. Returning to the example of the parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32), we can identify three main players: the prodigal, his father, and the brother.

At the beginning of the parable, the prodigal asks his father for his inheritance—something that was usually withheld until the time of death (verse 12).³¹ The son’s request was akin to saying to his father, “I wish you were dead,” as he departs from the father’s presence to a distant country (verse 13). He ends up impoverished, starved, and shamed (verses 14-16).
In this situation, the older brother should have ideally tried to seek reconciliation between his younger brother and father, yet he is essentially absent from the first half of the narrative; rather, upon the younger brother’s return towards the end of the parable, the older brother becomes visibly upset that the father is willing to readmit a sinner back into the family (verses 25-30).
Turning our attention to the father, we see that he has always been unalterably faithful and watchfully waiting for his son to return (verse 20). Upon seeing the returning prodigal, the father runs to him (something that was considered undignified in the culture) and welcomes his son unconditionally. Not only does the father meet the prodigal, but he also comes out to meet the older brother too to urge him to come in (verse 28). From the perspective of the father, the return of the prodigal son is tantamount to a resurrection event (verse 32).

As such, we can summarize it like this: when reading the parable from the perspective of the prodigal, we learn about how sin leads to devastating ruin but repentance brings restoration; by studying the father’s actions, we learn about God’s lavish love and the joy he has in forgiving undeserving sinners; and attending to the older brother’s sour attitude warns against the danger of hardheartedness. All these points reflect a part of the parable’s meaning and combining them together gives us a better idea of the overall message.³²

Parables often build on one another. For this reason, when interpreting a parable, it is important to note the historical setting in which it was given, especially when a parable is embedded within a historical narrative. We can see this in the parable of the Prodigal Son in Luke 15:11-32.³³ Most people interpret this parable as evangelistic with a focus on the wicked son who squandered his inheritance, comes to his senses, and returns to his father with repentance. While this may be certainly be a legitimate use of the parable, a deeper message is likely present.

The meaning of the parable is best understood in its broader context. The parable of the Prodigal Son is found in Luke 15 where the opening verses of the chapter describe the context: “Then all the tax collectors and the sinners drew near to Him to hear Him. And the Pharisees and scribes complained, saying, ‘This Man receives sinners and eats with them’” (verses 1-2).³⁴ Here, Jesus was voluntarily associating with disreputable members of society. It is in this setting that Jesus tells three parables in rapid succession to address those who were complaining: the parable of the lost sheep (verses 3-7), the lost coin (verses 8-10), and the lost son (verses 11-32). Jesus’ point was to rebuke the Pharisees and the scribes:

If the man who loses one sheep out of 100 rejoices when he finds it; and
If the woman who loses one coin out of 10 rejoices when she finds it; then
Shouldn’t the elder son who loses his only brother but then “finds” him again have even greater reason to rejoice?

The Pharisees and the scribes were the represented by the elder son. But instead of rejoicing when a sinner is “found,” they resent him, are unable to share in God’s joy, and refuse to celebrate with the angels in heaven (cf. verses 7, 10, 20, 22-24).

In fact, we can probably extend the connectivity of the parables even further. In the parable of the Prodigal Son, the prodigal squanders his inheritance on himself (verses 13-14) but when he repents, the father entrusts his son with wealth (verses 22-24). This sets up the next parable in chapter 16 where we are introduced to an unrighteous steward who, like the prodigal in the preceding parable, squanders his wealth (verse 1) and is exposed (verse 2). This brings us to the next point below.

Parables are often thematically arranged. This is particularly obvious in the Gospel of Matthew. There, we see a recurrent theme of the nature of the kingdom of God (especially in Matthew 13). This theme re-emerges again in the parable of the laborers in the vineyard in Matthew 20:1-16.³⁵ In this parable, the laborers who join in on the work at the end of the day are paid a full day’s wages for an hour’s work. Consequently, those who toiled all day are offended and complain because of the landowner’s generosity.³⁶ Among the many possible lessons, we can learn that what God gives is not proportionate to human effort, but God gives much more. In God’s kingdom, there is no place for envious comparisons and that we need to disavow ourselves of a merit-based attitude where we trust in our own works. The parable ends with, “So the last will be first, and the first last” (20:16).

This parable appears to be intentionally juxtaposed against the story of the rich young ruler in Matthew 19:16-30, which immediately precedes it. There, the rich young ruler thought he was good enough to inherit the kingdom of heaven, but went away disappointed when Jesus made him realize that this was not true because he was unwilling to give up his riches. Jesus then turned to his disciples to explain that salvation is impossible by human means (19:23-26). It is at this point that Peter exclaims, in contrast to the rich young ruler, how they have left everything behind to follow Jesus (v. 27). The passage ends the same way, “But many who are first will be last, and the last first” (19:30). By placing the story of the rich young ruler and the parable of the laborers in the vineyard side-by-side, Matthew seems to be saying:

“God’s people possess an equal inheritance… a right that does not ultimately depend upon how much we have quantifiably sacrificed. What is required is complete abandonment (19:29), an act that will vary from person to person owing to differing circumstances.”³⁷

In summary, when interpreting a parable, we need to be very careful to always read the parable within its broader context, to stick closely to what the passage says, and to pay attention to how Jesus or the person telling the parable explains it (if an interpretation is provided). These general rules will help us to avoid arbitrary allegorizing or unintentionally reading into a parable (eisegesis).

Literary Genres and Features: Acts

The Book of Acts bears strong resemblance to the Gospel genre. Luke did not compile history for history’s sake; rather, the book of acts serves to retell how the Holy Spirit moved among Jesus’ followers to establish and spread the church.³⁸ One proposed outline for the book is as follows (based on six summary statements where Luke describes how Christianity expands):³⁹

Gospel spreads to Jerusalem (1:1-6:7)
Gospel spreads to Judea, Samaria, and Galilee (6:8-9:31)
Gospel spreads to the gentiles (9:32-12:24)
Gospel spreads to what now is Turkey (12:25-16:5)
Gospel spreads to Europe (16:6-19:20)
Gospel spreads from Jerusalem to Rome (19:21-28:31)

Jesus and his people are connected. Just as Jesus had received the Spirit for the public discharge of his own earthly ministry, so too he imparts the Spirit to his people that they might continue and share in the ministry which he began.⁴⁰ In this sense, the title of the book, “the Acts of the Apostles” might be better renamed “the Acts of the Enthroned Christ.” Once we realize this, we will understand the fundamental connection between the Gospels and the Book of Acts. Here are some of the more obvious parallels:

On the Day of Pentecost, Peter quotes from the Prophet Joel (Acts 2:15-21; Joel 2:28-32) where God declares that he will pour out his Spirit upon all mankind. Jesus was the first person to fulfill Joel’s prophecy (Luke 3:21-22; cf. Matthew 3:16; Mark 1:10) and he now has shared the same Spirit with the people of God (Acts 1:4-5, 8; 2:1-4, 33).
Subsequently, the apostles Peter and John encounter a lame beggar by the gate of the temple and heal him in Jesus’ name (Acts 3:6) with the implication that the lame man is not only physically healed but also forgiven of his sins (Acts 4:12). It was possible that the beggar may have previously encountered Jesus at the temple gate (cf. John 9:1-12) but it was only on this occasion that he was healed. In doing so, the apostles continue the work of Jesus in performing bodily healings accompanied by the absolution of sins (Mark 2:10-11; also, Matthew 9:6; Luke 5:24; John 5:8).
The apostles are then confronted and interrogated by the emeritus high priest Annas and the high priest Caiaphas (Acts 4:1-7), the same authorities who just a few weeks before, placed Jesus on trial and handed him over to death (John 18:12-14, 19-24; cf. Luke 22:66-71). The apostles declare that God has overturned the verdict from the earthly courts by vindicating Jesus (Acts 4: 11; cf. Luke 20:17-18).
There is continuity in the reaction of the authorities to the apostles and Jesus. Both are criticized as being uneducated, but both support their teaching with mighty works (Acts 4:13-14; cf. John 7:15). Christians are called Nazarenes (Acts 24:5) like Jesus (Matthew 2:23).
The apostles performed many miracles and multitudes were being added to the community (Acts 5:13-16) as was also the case in the days of Jesus (Mark 1:32-34; Luke 4:40-41). Peter heals a paralytic, Aeneus, who had been bedridden for 8 years (Acts 9:32-34), paralleling what Jesus had done earlier (Luke 5:17-26; cf. Mark 2:9; John 5:9), and even down to nearly the same wording, “Arise and make your bed…” (Acts 9:34; Luke 5:24).
Moreover, the sick sought to have Peter’s shadow fall upon them so that they may be healed (Acts 5:15) and the cloth material that Paul had handled was used to heal the sick (Acts 19:12-13). Previously, the sick reached out to touch the fringe of Jesus’ cloak for healing (Mark 6:56).
Peter’s first formal encounter with a gentile is a devout centurion, Cornelius, who fears God (Acts 10:1-2), much like how the first gentile that Jesus encountered in his public ministry was a centurion in Capernaum and of whom Jesus marveled at his faith (Matthew 8:5-11; Luke 7:1-11).
In Joppa, Peter raises a disciple named Tabitha from the dead (Acts 9:36-40), saying almost the same thing that Jesus had spoken to Jairus’ daughter years earlier (Mark 5:41)— differing by only one letter in Aramaic: Talitha qum(i) vs. Tabitha qum(i)—“Tabitha, get up.”⁴¹
Old Testament texts (such as Isaiah 49:5-6) that are initially applied to Jesus (Luke 2:32) are used to describe Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13:47; cf. 26:18). Jesus is the servant in Isaiah’s prophecy (cf. Luke 4:16-21; 22:37; Acts 8:32-35) and those who follow Jesus are servants like him.
Paul quotes from Isaiah 6:9-10 to the Jews in Rome who refused to accept the gospel to make the point that God has made those who are deaf even more deaf, and the blind even more blind (Acts 28:26-27), just as Jesus did when he applied the same passage to his unresponsive hearers (Mark 4:12; Matthew 13:13-15; Luke 8:10; John 12:39-40).
Paul, like Jesus, resolutely sets his face to go to Jerusalem, despite knowing that he will suffer there (Acts 21:13; cf. Luke 9:51) and prays, like Jesus did in Gethsemane, “The will of the Lord be done” (Acts 21:14; cf. Luke 22:42). Also like Jesus, Paul was rejected by the crowds in Jerusalem, who shouted, “Away with him!” (Acts 21:35-36; cf. Luke 23:18; John 19:15).
In Jerusalem, Paul was delivered into the hands of the Romans (Acts 21:11; 28:17) like Jesus (Luke 9:44; 18:32).
The threefold charges brought against Paul (Acts 24:5-6; 25:8) parallel those launched against Jesus (Luke 23:2; Matthew 26:61) where each are falsely accused of stirring up dissension, opposing Cesar, and desecrating the temple. But Paul is declared innocent of all charges leveled against him by unanimous agreement in the court of law (Acts 26:30-32) just like Jesus (Luke 23:4; John 18:38; 19:4, 6).
The disciples follow the path of suffering to glory like Jesus (Acts 14:22; cf. Luke 24:26). Even at the point of death, members of the early church continue to mirror Jesus. The early church martyr Stephen reflects Jesus’ pattern in his dying breath, pleading to God to forgive his murderers and committing his spirit over to God (Acts 7:54-60; cf. Luke 23:34, 46).
The book of Acts concludes with Paul, a chief messenger of the gospel, freely proclaiming the gospel in Rome without hindrance (Acts 8:30-31), fulfilling the plan that was mapped out by the risen Lord Jesus Christ (1:8). The body on earth does the work set out for it by the Head in heaven. The gospel reaches the end of the earth through the ministry of Paul “and believers after Paul (including us!) are called to continue the work.”⁴²

The mystical union between the resurrected Christ with his people on earth is a repeated theme. For this reason, when Jesus confronts Saul on the road to Damascus, he tells Saul that by persecuting the church, Saul is in fact persecuting Jesus himself (Acts 9:4-5).⁴³ What is one of the key messages from the Book of Acts? “Luke saw the life of a faithful disciple as often imitating that of Christ both in its spiritual power and in the necessity of suffering” but “unfortunately, we rarely find the combination of the themes of power and suffering in contemporary Christianity; those who successfully emphasize the one usually tend to play down the other.”⁴⁴

Finally, an important concluding thought is to remember that historical narratives primarily describe what happened. This is in contrast to didactic parts of the Bible (such the New Testament Epistles) which are focused on teaching doctrine—that is, not only what is true but how to apply the truth in our lives. As such, didactic literature helps us to interpret historical narrative. The former is usually prescriptive whereas the latter descriptive.

“Unless Scripture explicitly tells us we must do something, what is only narrated or described does not function in a normative (i.e., obligatory) way—unless it can be demonstrated on other grounds that the author intended it to function in this way.”⁴⁵

For example, there is no mandate to replicate Gideon’s actions by setting out a fleece (or something analogous) as a means of finding God’s will. While God may have graciously condescended to Gideon, he has provided us with Scripture as the normative way of knowing his will (e.g., 1 Peter 2:15; 1 Thessalonians 4:3; 5:18; etc.).

Footnotes

1
For instance, in the Gospel of John, almost a third of the book (chapters 13-19) describe the last 24 hours of Jesus’ life before he is crucified. Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 159.
2
In fact, Jesus’ speech appears to vary between the gospel writers. But this does not undermine the historical trustworthiness of the Gospels. Rather, we must consider the Gospels according to the standards of writing of their day, which frequently paraphrased people rather than recording direct quotations. “So, for example, we should not be surprised when Mark and Luke report that the voice from heaven at Jesus’ baptism declared ‘you are my Son whom I love’ (Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22), while Matthew’s account has ‘This is my Son whom I love’ (Matthew 3:17). Matthew has probably reworded Mark to emphasize that the heavenly voice spoke not only for Jesus’ benefit but also for the crowd’s.” Ibid, p. 513.

Sometimes, there are significant differences in the recorded dialogue between Jesus and those he speaks to. This should not throw us off though. Even if Jesus’ words have been summarized or paraphrased, it is the inspired gospel writers’ account of those words that is divinely inspired. “Consider the story of the rich young ruler. According to Mark 10:17-18 and Luke 18:18-19, this ruler called Jesus ‘good teacher’ and asked Jesus what he should do to inherit eternal life. Jesus answered: ‘Why do you call me good? No one is good—except God alone.’ When we turn to the gospel of Matthew, however, we find a somewhat different account. Here the ruler addresses Jesus with the simple title ‘Teacher,’ then inquires about what good thing he should do to inherit eternal life. Jesus’ response is, ‘What do you ask me about what is good? There is only One who is good’ (Matthew 19:16-17). There have been some attempts to resolve this discrepancy, but if we try to make all three gospels say the same thing, we may miss a very important point that Matthew wants to get across… By rephrasing the ruler’s question [and Jesus’ response], Matthew helps us to identify [the ruler’s] problem immediately… Jesus was forcing the man to recognize that he was quite wrong in thinking of himself as good… The changes Matthew introduces are not intended to deceive, nor are they the result of careless error. Rather, [Matthew] is interpreting, under divine inspiration, the significance of Jesus’ encounter… Just as every good preacher retells and paraphrases the biblical text to make it clearer and to help the congregation apply it, so do the gospel writers. The difference is that the authors of the Gospels spoke with God’s own authority. Indeed, Jesus speaks through these writers no less than he spoke when he lived on the earth.” Ibid, p. 160 (emphasis mine).
3
“After all, Mark and John say nothing about Jesus’ birth, childhood, or young adult years. Luke and Matthew include selected incidents related to his birth and one episode about his teachings in the temple at age twelve, but otherwise they too are silent. On the other hand, all four Gospels devote a disproportionately large space to the last few weeks and days of Christ’s life. What is more, the main events of Jesus’ ministry appear in different order in the different Gospels, and rarely are we told how much time elapsed between any two events.” Ibid, p. 511.
4
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 161.
5
Ibid, p. 158.
6
Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition. Zondervan, 2017, p. 512.
7
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 168.
8
Ibid, p. 168. Emphasis mine.
9
Ibid, p. 169. Emphasis mine.
10
Roberts, Alastair. Echoes of Exodus: Tracing Themes of Redemption through Scripture. Crossway, 2018, pp. 125-127.
11
“And the Word became flesh and dwelt among us…” (John 1:14). On the phrase, “dwelt among us,” it is more literally translated “the Word pitched his tabernacle, or lived in his tent, among us… God has chosen to dwell amongst his people in a yet more personal way, in the word-become-flesh.” Carson, D. A. John: The Pillar New Testament Commentary. W.B. Eerdmans, 1991, p. 127.
12
Roberts, Alastair. Echoes of Exodus: Tracing Themes of Redemption through Scripture. Crossway, 2018, p. 127.
13
The parallels go on. “Jesus is the provider of win for God’s people so they can celebrate with him, behold him, and eat and drink (John 2; cf. Exodus 24). He is the preacher of the new birth, through the waters and by the Spirit, and the bronze serpent lifted up in the wilderness, that whoever believes may have life (John 3). He is the fountain of water in dry places (John 4; 7). He heals those who have been weak and paralyzed, hopeless and lost—one man for thirty-eight years—and gives them rest (John 5; cf. Deuteronomy 2:14). He provides the bread of heaven and reveals his sovereignty over the water (John 6). He is the prophet like Moses and the source of true spiritual food and drink (John 6; 7). He is the shepherd who leads his people out and protects them (John 10). He turns Pharoah’s plagues on their heads, bringing fresh water to the thirsty, healing to those plagued with sickness, light in the darkness, and life to the dead, ultimately through his self-sacrifice as the King’s firstborn Son as Passover. He is the true tabernacle, in whom we see what God truly looks like; the true mediator, who prays that his people would be united in truth and holiness; the true Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world.” Ibid, p. 129.
14
Stein, Robert H. Mark: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Baker Academic, 2013, pp. 177, 509-510.
15
For example, 3:20-35; 4:1-20; 5:21-43; 6:7-30; 11:12-21; 14:1-11; 14:17-31; 14:53-72; and 15:40-16:8. Edwards, James R. “Markan Sandwiches the Significance of Interpolations in Markan Narratives.” Novum Testamentum, vol. 31, no. 3, 1989, pp. 193–216, https://doi.org/10.1163/156853689X00207.
16
Gladd, Benjamin L. Handbook on the Gospels. Baker Academic, 2021, pp. 130, 144, 171, 196.
17
Ibid, pp. 144-145.
18
Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition. Zondervan, 2017, p. 524.
19
Other examples of embedded genres include riddles, fables, popular proverbs, songs, and lists. Ibid, pp. 433-438.
20
A riddle is a simple statement with a hidden meaning that must be discovered (e.g. when Samson tried to stump the Philistines in Judges 14:14, 18). A fable teaches a moral truth using a brief story in which plants and animals behave like people (e.g., Jotham’s story of how there were trees who were seeking a king among other trees and vines, but only a thorn bush was willing to serve in Judges 9:8-15). In contrast, a parable is a brief story that usually features human beings and illustrates a biblical truth. Ibid, pp. 434-435.
21
But these are not entirely unique to the Gospels (e.g., 2 Samuel 12:1-10 where Nathan went to David with the parable of the young lamb). Stein, Robert H. Mark: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament. Baker Academic, 2013, pp. 177, 509-510.
22
Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition. Zondervan, 2017, p. 435.
23
Up until this century, most interpreters have treated parables as detailed allegories. Take, for example, Augustine’s commentary on the Good Samaritan where he interpreted the parable allegorically: “A certain man went down from Jerusalem to Jericho; Adam himself is meant; Jerusalem is the heavenly city of peace, from whose blessedness Adam fell; Jericho means the moon, and signifies our mortality, because it is born, waxes, wanes, an dies. Thieves are the devil and his angels. Who stripped him, namely; of his immortality; and beat him, by persuading him to sin; and left him half-dead, because in so far as man can understand and know God, he lives, but in so far as he is wasted and oppressed by sin, he is dead; he is therefore called half-dead. The priest and the Levite who saw him and passed by, signify the priesthood and ministry of the Old Testament which could profit nothing for salvation. Samaritan means Guardian, and therefore the Lord Himself is signified by this name. The binding of the wounds is the restraint of sin. Oil is the comfort of good hope; winethe exhortation to work with fervent spirit. The beast is the flesh in which He deigned to come to us. The being set upon the beast is belief in the incarnation of Christ. The inn is the Church, where travelers returning to their heavenly country are refreshed after pilgrimage. The morrow is after the resurrection of the Lord. The two pence are either the two precepts of love, or the promise of this life and of that which is to come. The innkeeper is the Apostle (Paul). The supererogatory payment is either his counsel of celibacy, or the fact that he worked with his own hands lest he should be a burden to any of the weaker brethren when the Gospel was new, though it was lawful for him ‘to live by the gospel.’” Augustine. Quaestiones Evangeliorum, II, 19–slightly abridged as cited in Dodd, C.H. The Parables of the Kingdom. Scribners, 1961, pp. 1-2. Emphasis mine.
24
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 162.
25
Isaiah 6, along with other similar texts, teaches that we reflect the image of what we worship. Idols have mouths but cannot speak; they have eyes, but cannot see; they have ears, but cannot hear; they have noses but cannot smell; they have hands, but cannot feel; they have feet, but cannot walk (Psalm 115:4-7; 135:15-17). When people turn away from God towards idols, they become spiritual blind and deaf too (Psalm 135:18; cf. Jeremiah 2:5). Beale, G. K. A New Testament Biblical Theology: The Unfolding of the Old Testament in the New. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2011. pp. 377-378. Also, Beale, G. K. We Become What We Worship: A Biblical Theology of Idolatry. Apollos, 2008.
26
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 162.
27
The cross serves as a microcosm of what the gospel brings. There, we had the same Jesus and the same crucifixion. But we had one thief who remained in his sins while the other turned to Jesus in faith (Luke 23:39-43). The gospel is a double-edged sword. This is the essence of Jesus’ teaching when he describes the two possible responses that people will have to him: “And whoever falls on this stone will be broken; but on whomever it falls, it will grind him to powder” (Matthew 21:44).
28
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, pp. 162-163.
29
Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition. Zondervan, 2017, p. 525. Emphasis mine.
30
Around two-thirds of Jesus’ parables are triadic and feature three main characters, most often a master figure (e.g., king, father, shepherd) and two contrasting subordinates (e.g., servants, sons, sheep)—such as the parable of the Ten Virgins where there is a bridegroom and two very different groups of bridesmaids (Matthew 25:1-13); the parable of the shepherd who lost one sheep but ninety-nine were safe (Luke 15:3-7); the parable of the sower where there was good soil vs. unproductive soil (Mark 4:3-9); or the parable of the king who forgives his servant an enormous debt but that servant refuses to overlook a small sum owed to him by another servant (Matthew 18:23-25).

In around one-third of Jesus’ parables, the story is shorter and simpler with a dyadic structure where only two characters are contrasted without a master figure—such as the wise and foolish builders (Matthew 7:24-27); or the Pharisee and the tax collector (Luke 18:9-14).

Sometimes, a monadic structure is present where only one character appears—such as in the parables of the mustard seed and leaven (Luke 13:18-21); the parable of the tower-builder and the warring king (Luke 14:28-33); and the parables of the hidden treasure and the pearl of great price (Matthew 13:44-46). Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition. Zondervan, 2017, pp. 525-526.
31
Geldenhuys, Noval. The New International Commentary on the New Testament: The Gospel of Luke. Eerdmans, 1951, p. 406.
32
Here is another excellent example of how looking at the parable from the perspective of each of the major characters is instructive. “From the parable of the Two Sons (Matthew 21:28-32) we might deduce three lessons from the three characters: (1) like the father sending his sons to work, God commands all people to carry out his will; (2) like the son who ultimately disobeyed, some promise but do not perform rightly and so are rejected by God; and (3) like the son who ultimately obeyed, some rebel but later submit and so are accepted. Then a possible way of combining these three points emerges: ‘Performance takes priority over promise.’ This formulation helps preachers and teachers communicate the message of the parable in a much more memorable form!” Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition. Zondervan, 2017, p. 527.
33
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 164.
34
It is important to note that tax collectors were especially loathed. Jews would not normally associate with tax collectors (cf. Matthew 9:10-13). Jesus ranked them with harlots (Matthew 21:31) and sinners (Matthew 9:10). “The tax collectors made their profits by charging a higher toll than the law required… Normally a publican charged 5% of the purchase price of normal trade items and up to 12.5% on luxury items… Jewish people despised the publicans as agents of the hated Roman Empire and the puppet Jewish king” Packer, J. I., and Merrill C. Tenney. Illustrated Manners and Customs of the Bible. T. Nelson, 1980, p. 530.
35
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 166.
36
This parable resembles the parable of the prodigal son.
37
Gladd, Benjamin L. Handbook on the Gospels. Baker Academic, 2021, p. 68.
38
Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition. Zondervan, 2017, p. 533.
39
Schreiner, Thomas R. Handbook on Acts and Paul’s Letters. Baker Academic, 2019, p. 3; cf. Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition. Zondervan, 2017, pp. 534-535.
40
Bruce, F.F. The New International Commentary on the New Testament: The Book of the Acts, Revised Edition. Eerdmans, 1988, p. 67.
41
Ibid, p. 199.
42
Schreiner, Thomas R. Handbook on Acts and Paul’s Letters. Baker Academic, 2019, p. 44.
43
As Augustine put it, “it was the head in heaven crying out on behalf of the members that were still on earth” (Sermon279.1). Bruce, F.F. The New International Commentary on the New Testament: The Book of the Acts, Revised Edition. Eerdmans, 1988, p. 182.
44
Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation: Third Edition. Zondervan, 2017, p. 536.
45
Fee, Gordon D., and Douglas K. Stuart. How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth. Zondervan, 2003, pp.118-119.

Footnotes

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