5. Literary Genres and Features (Prophecy)

Literary Genres and Features: Prophecy

Prophecy is another literary genre that makes up more than a quarter of the Bible.¹ Prophecy is not simply foretelling the future. More often than not, it involves forth-telling, that is, applying God’s word to specific situations to the immediate audience (e.g., calling Israel to repentance, to cast down her idols, and to seek the Lord).² Looking at the prior category, there are some common features of biblical prophecy:³

It is intelligible and plainly foretells things to come. In other words, it is given in such a way that it can provide an adequate understanding of what is intended to the audience to whom it was originally given, even it may come in the form of a riddle, or is accomplished by symbols, or is clothed in a vision. Bible prophecy is not ambiguous, but quite specific.⁴ That being said, there is still an enigmatic aspect to it (cf. Numbers 12:6-8), such that “prophecy is not intended to be fully understood before its fulfillment.”⁵

It is intended to give a firm future prediction, not a retrospective declaration. For instance, in the Olivet Discourse recorded in Matthew 24:1-35, Jesus predicts the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple that occurred in AD 70 in great detail.⁶ In response, liberal scholars often dispute the fact that the prophecy recorded by Matthew was actually given beforehand, but instead suggest that it was written (or edited) after the events occurred. This is because the predictions, as they are, appear too accurate than can be easily explained on natural terms (without admitting to divine inspiration).

Similar claims have been made lodged against the prophecies contained in the Book of Daniel (particularly chapters 8 and 11) because of the indisputable detail they give concerning specific and easily identifiable historical figures and kingdoms that arose long after Daniel already died (e.g., the rise of the Medo-Persian and Greek empires in 550 BC; the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC; the subsequent fragmentation of the Greek empire into four parts; the ensuing struggles between the Northern and Southern kingdoms, etc.).⁷ Indeed, liberal scholarship will often treat prophecy as a retrospective look back upon events that have already been completed, rather than to acknowledge these as predictive prophecy as they are. The Bible, however, clearly presents these as future predictions.
Bible prophecy is written or proclaimed prior to the event it refers to, and could not have been foreseen by ordinary human wisdom. In other words, the prophets were not relying on making educated guesses based on the current circumstances (such as would be the case with meteorologists who make weather forecasts, or stock traders who deal with the stock market). Rather prophecy is directly communicated by God to his servants.

It is frequently fulfilled according to the words of the original prediction. It is specific. This characteristic is related to (a), above.

Prophecy does not work out its own fulfillment. The authors of the Bible did not force events to fit the fulfillment of a prior prophecy. The prophecy stands as a witness until the events have taken place.

Prophecy is not an isolated prediction, but it is interconnected with other prophecies and as such is usually one of a long series of predictions. The Bible contains a string of prophecies that are all interrelated. This means that each prediction is rarely treated as an isolated unit, but rather to be interpreted in light of the rest of Scripture.

Let’s examine Genesis 49 as an example. In this chapter, we have a record of Jacob gathering his sons together prior to his death:

“And Jacob called his sons and said, ‘Gather together, that I may tell you what shall befall you in the last days… Judah is a lion’s whelp; From the prey, my son, you have gone up. He bows down, he lies down as a lion; And as a lion, who shall rouse him? The sceptershall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh comes; And to Him shall be the obedience of the people. Binding his donkey to the vine, and his donkey’s colt to the choice vine, he washed his garments in wine, and his clothes in the blood of grapes” (Genesis 49:1, 9-11).

Here, Jacob seems to reveals a certain Messianic awareness (cf. Jesus is the Lion of the tribe of Judah; Revelation 5:5).⁸

Interestingly, over 400 years later of years later, we encounter Balaam who makes a prophecy (Numbers 24:3-9, 15-19) that harkens back to Jacob’s prophecy (e.g., “He bows down, he lies down as a lion; And as a lion, who shall rouse him?” [v. 9]; “A Star shall come out of Jacob; a Sceptershall rise out of Israel…” [v. 17]).⁹

There is strong continuity between biblical prophecies. Prophecy is never given in isolation. But, as a general rule, all biblical prophecy is tied to the person and work of Christ.

The fact that prophecy is frequently thematic related harkens back to the organic unity of the Bible. For example, we see how all Messianic prophecies build upon each other in escalation: it starts with the proto-gospel in the garden foretelling the coming seed of the woman that will crush the head of the serpent (Genesis 3:15), then focuses in on God’s “dwelling” with Shem (9:26-27), and narrows down to Abraham’s “seed” (12:3; 15:2-8; 18:18), then eventually the Davidic line (2 Samuel 7:12-14).

There is another characteristic of prophetic literature that we should address: prophetic foreshortening. This refers to how some prophetic visions seem to place certain events in close proximity, as if they either occur simultaneously or in rapid succession one upon the other. But, in reality, these events are separated by large gaps of time. It is the “blending together [of] both the near and distant aspects of the prediction in one and the same vision.”¹⁰

Joel 2 presents an example of prophetic foreshortening. In the greater context of the book, Israel has been subjected to a great disaster from an army of invaders.¹¹ This army, described as a hoard of locusts, has wiped-out large parts of Israel as agents of God’s judgment.¹² Then, God comes to Israel through the prophet to speak to them about their restoration and forgiveness at the heels of the locust plague (Joel 2:18, 25-27):

“Then the Lord will be zealous for His land, and pity His people… ‘So I will restore to you the years that the swarming locust has eaten… You shall eat in plenty and be satisfied, and praise the name of the Lord your God, who has dealt wondrously with you; and My people shall never be put to shame. Then you shall know that I am in the midst of Israel: I am the Lord your God and there is no other. My people shall never be put to shame.”

The prophet then goes on to say (2:28):

“And it shall come to pass afterward that I will pour out My Spirit on all flesh; Your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, your young men shall see visions.”

Here, Joel seamlessly shifts from events that took place around the 6^th to 7^th century BC in his own lifetime (in verse 27)¹³ to speak about events that transpire in AD 33 on the Day of Pentecost (in verse 28; cf. Acts 2:14-21). This is an example of prophetic foreshortening because within the immediate context there are no obvious indicators that signal for the reader that the events are actually separated by over half a millennium. Consistent with this, Peter (under divine inspiration) authoritatively interprets Joel and changes the wording of the prophecy (with an inspired interpretative spin), which originally said, “And it shall come to pass afterward…” (Joel 2:28) to say, “And it shall come to pass in the last days” (Acts 2:17), thus pinning down the specific timing of its fulfillment.

Another example of prophetic foreshortening comes from Obadiah. In the Book of Obadiah, the prophet reflects on past mistreatment towards Israel by Edom around 700 years later (Obadiah 10-11):¹⁴

“For violence against your brother Jacob, shame shall cover you, and you shall be cut off forever. In the day that you stood on the other side—In the day that strangers carried captive his forces, when foreigners entered his gates and cast lots for Jerusalem—Even you were as one of them.”

Not only did Edom show hostility in the past by refusing Israel safe passage in the wilderness (cf. Numbers 20:14-21; Judges 11:16-17), here they are indicted for gloating over and pillaging Israel when they were being attacked; in fact, Edom even joined in on the attack by cutting down the Israelites who were running for their lives and imprisoned the survivors (Obadiah 12-14):

“But you should not have gazed on the day of your brother in the day of his captivity; Nor should you have rejoiced over the children of Judah in the day of their destruction; Nor should you have spoken proudly in the day of distress. You should not have entered the gate of My people in the day of their calamity. Indeed, you should not have gazed on their affliction in the day of their calamity, nor laid hands on their substance in the day of their calamity. You should not have stood at the crossroads to cut off those among them who escaped; nor should you have delivered up those among them who remained in the day of distress.”

But after all this, notice what the prophet says in verse 15:

“For the day of the Lord upon all the nations is near; as you have done, it shall be done to you; your reprisal shall return upon your own head.”

The prophet has suddenly jumped from the immediate historical context to the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. There is virtually no indication within the text that signals to the reader that there is a massive gap in time between verses 14 and 15.

We see yet another example of prophetic foreshortening in the Olivet Discourse. Here, we should keep in mind that Jesus is the Prophet par excellence and the one to whom all the Old Testament prophets were pointing forward to. Therefore, it should not come as a surprise that when Jesus prophesizes, he uses the same literary devices that his predecessors employed. In Matthew 24:1-3, we read:

“Then Jesus went out and departed from the temple, and His disciples came up to show Him the buildings of the temple. And Jesus said to them, ‘Do you not see all these things? Assuredly, I say to you, not one stone shall be left here upon another, that shall not be thrown down.’ Now as He sat on the Mount of Olives, the disciples came to Him privately, saying, ‘Tell us, when will these things be? And what will be the sign of Your coming, and of the end of the age?’”

The disciples ask Jesus two distinct questions—the first pertaining to the destruction of the temple and the second related to the second coming and the end of the age—under the assumption that both events are one in the same, occurring simultaneously. Notably, in Jesus’ response, he doesn’t untangle the two issues, but rather answers both in tandem. The first question is addressed in 24:3-35 (where tangible signs are given, ultimately fulfilled in AD 70) and the second question is answered in 24:36-25:46 (where no specific signs are given with respect to the Second Coming and the exact timing is left unknown).¹⁵ Jesus uses prophetic foreshortening, like the Old Testament prophets in the past, where he speaks of events that were near to his own time while also predicting events still afar off.¹⁶

There are two implications. First, by using prophetic foreshortening, it prevents us, as the hearers/readers, from knowing with precision when the events will actually occur, even though we can still be certain what will eventually happen. It keeps the details of when things will be fulfilled under the cloak of secrecy to some degree. Second, it shows us similarities between two events (one close and the other far off). Many times, the events that occur soon foreshadow those that will happen later (similar to typology). In this case, the destruction of the Temple, the fall of Jerusalem, and God’s judgment upon the nation of Israel in AD 70 bears a similar character to how things will eventually unfold when Jesus Christ returns (i.e., with the destruction of false religion in Revelation 17:1-13; the fall of the City of Man in 18:1-24; and God’s final judgment upon unbelievers in 19:11-19 and 20:11-15).

Some people have described this feature of prophecy is like looking at two mountain peaks that are separated by a large distance (i.e., time). From afar, the two peaks appear almost superimposed, but in reality, they are potentially many miles (i.e., centuries or millennia) apart. Nonetheless, they are all interrelated.

“They [all] participate in the ultimate fulfillment. However, the interpret must be careful to note that even though there may be a multiple number of fulfillments, in the prophet’s mind, they are united together as one sense and meaning, since all the fulfillments participate in the organic unity and wholeness to which each member of the future enactments belongs… These multiple fulfillments have a single, organically related, and unified wholeness.”¹⁷

A classical illustration is the prediction of the messianic line. Each son born in the Abrahamic and Davidic line was a real fulfillment and “down payment” of the promise made. There is a real sense in which Isaac was the seed promised to Abraham (cf. Galatians 3:16) and Solomon the son of David who would build God a house (cf. Acts 7:46-47), yet both were also placeholders that anticipated the final fulfillment in Jesus Christ. The functioned to confirm that God’s word about the coming Messiah were trustworthy promises.¹⁸

Moreover, we can also say that the predictions of the characteristics of Jesus Christ’s first and second comings were frequently described as if they were one and the same, whereas in reality these are actually separated by at least 2000 years (and counting):

“The Prophets saw [or described] only one coming, with no distinction made between two phases of that coming. Thus, what is represented by the Prophets as transpiring once-for-all in ‘the latter days’ is realized over an expanse of time which is already virtually two millennia in length [and counting!]. Therefore, it is in light of the New Testament we discern that Messiah’s coming is in two stages, corresponding to the inauguration and consummation of God’s eschatological purposes.”¹⁹

Instead of acknowledging the presence of prophetic foreshortening, some people have tried to resolve the problem of why some prophecies appear to be referring to an event that occurred at (or near) the time of the prophet’s original audience and also fulfilled in the distant future by insisting that prophecy has a “double sense” instead. What is meant by this is that a passage of prophecy has two different meanings (each completely different from the other). The problem with the “double sense” concept of prophecy is that if the same Scripture can have a myriad of different meanings, then it leaves doubt about whether we have truly understood what the passage means, in the case of prophecy, if we can ever confidently say it has been fulfilled.

Rather, what we should affirm is that (1) prophecy looks forward not simply to a single event or person, but to a progressive development over time; and (2) what is often described in the Old Testament is a type that anticipates its fulfillment in the New Testament antitype.²⁰ This is sometimes referred to as an “already-not yet” framework. There is one meaning to the text but it is divided into an inaugurated (already) and future (not yet) fulfillment. The “already-not yet” framework maintains that prophecy has one meaning, even though its fulfillment may be separated by either (1) near and remote events, or (2) physical and spiritual realities. The teaching that prophecy has a “double sense” is different than this.

Case Study:

Old Testament prophets oftentimes issued prophecies that were partially fulfilled in the short-term (within the Old Testament epoch) but still pointed towards a later complete fulfillment (usually in the latter days).²¹ Isaiah 7:13-14 provides such an example: “Then he said, ‘Hear now, O house of David! Is it a small thing for you to weary men, but will you weary my God also? Therefore the Lord Himself will give you a sign: Behold, the virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, and shall call His name Immanuel.”

The Gospel of Matthew quotes this prophecy (Matthew 1:23) and this has been traditionally used by Christians as one of the key passages to affirm the virgin birth. However, this passage has been disputed by others who claim that this passage has no clear messianic or Christological connections in its original context:

“Immanuel is a name given to a child born in the eight century BC (as Isaiah 7:15-17 indicates)… To have that child born of a virgin will not do… We begin with the unarguable blunt fact: Isaiah gives no hint that he was talking about the virgin birth of a messiah to be born eight centuries in the future. Therefore, if we are accountable to the author’s intentions, we cannot assume the connection to either Messiah in general or Jesus in particular.”²²

How should we respond to such critiques? We can resolve this dilemma by recognizing Isaiah 7:13-14 to be an example where there is a “first fulfillment and second fulfillment” (also referred to by some as a “double fulfillment” or a “semi-fulfillment and complete fulfillment”). Dr. G. K. Beale provides a reasonable solution:

“The prophecy of a young woman (or virgin) giving birth to a child named ‘Immanuel’ in Isaiah 7:13-14 finds it first provisional fulfillment in the birth of Isaiah’s son (Isaiah 8:3-4; cf. 8:8, 10, 18). Yet the greater fulfillment is predicted in Isaiah 9:1-7, where the prophesied Davidic king is called ‘Mighty God, Eternal Father, Prince of Peace,” and Matthew 1:22-23 shows this is fulfilled climactically in Jesus… That Isaiah himself was aware that Isaiah’s child was a typological pointer to Jesus is evident in his prophecy in 9:1-7.”²³

In summary, biblical prophecy is characterized by three parts: (1) the prophetic word given before the fulfillment of the predicted event; (2) the historical means by which God providentially kept the prophetic word, oftentimes in successive stages, where there was a partial realization of what was promised and a continued anticipation of the future final fulfillment; and (3) the ultimate, climatic fulfillment of the prophetic word, either in the New Testament era with the first coming of Christ, or in the final climatic second coming.²⁴

Authorial intent. When prophesying, the human authors likely spoke better than they knew (cf. 1 Peter 1:10-11). While the prophets had an adequate understanding of what they spoke and wrote (i.e., they appeared to have some degree of awareness that they were speaking of things in the near and far), they did not have a complete understanding of it all (especially the time and exact manner in which God would fulfill his promises).²⁵ While it is important to acknowledge the intention of the human authors of the Scriptures, the most important question we need to answer when reading the Bible is, “What did God intend?” What God intends to convey is the key to understanding the Bible.

Categories of prophecy. Prophecies can be categorized as conditional, unconditional, and sequential.

Unconditional prophecies do not depend on the obedience of human beings for their fulfillment in any sense. These are classically grounded in the Covenant of Grace. Genesis 15 is an example where God swears a promise to Abraham that Abraham would be the father of a multitude and possess a God-given inheritance. To assure him of the unchanging character of the promise, God unilaterally passes between the pieces of sacrificed animals as a pledge of his sworn oath.²⁶

Conditional prophecies are the most common type of prophecies in the Old Testament. These are almost always derivative of Leviticus 26 and Deuteronomy 28-32 (where blessings are promised for obedience but curses for disobedience). Conditional promises are frequently distinguished by the use of “if” or “unless” statements (either explicitly stated or implied).

Jeremiah 18:7-10 provides an explicit example: “The instant I speak concerning a nation and concerning a kingdom, to pluck up, to pull down, and to destroy it, if that nation against whom I have spoken turns from its evil, I will relent of the disaster that I thought to bring upon it. And the instant I speak concerning a nation and concerning a kingdom, to build and to plant it, if it does evil in My sight so that it does not obey My voice, then I will relent concerning the good with which I said I would benefit it.”

The story of King Ahab in 1 Kings 21 gives an example of conditional prophecy that is implied. In verses 20-24, Elijah warns Ahab of coming judgment and in verses 27-29, Ahab repents with fasting and sackcloth. As a result, judgment is held back and delayed by God, “See how Ahab has humbled himself before Me? Because he has humbled himself before Me, I will not bring the calamity in his days. In the days of his son I will bring the calamity on his house.”

Sequential prophecy refers to a prediction that contains a series of multiple events, often stretched over many centuries. Because of the perceived delay in fulfillment, critics of the Bible cite these as examples of prophecies that were never fulfilled (or at least not in the way that the text originally claimed that they would be). One of the best known examples is Ezekiel’s prophecy of the destruction of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar (26:7-14; 29:17-20).²⁷ But Nebuchadnezzar didn’t literally destroy Tyre (at least not in the conventional sense).

From what we know of history, sometime after his accession in 604 BC, Nebuchadnezzar besieged Tyre for 13 years (586-573 BC) and drove it to an offshore island.²⁸ But Tyre was not finally destroyed until centuries later when Alexander the Great came against it in 332 BC. It was at that time that Alexander the Great, according to Ezekiel’s prophecy, laid their “stones, timber, and soil” to construct a causeway “in the midst of the water” to reach the island-city (26:12), which he then easily overtook. So, what should we to make of Ezekiel’s original prophecy, which indicated that Tyre would fall under Nebechadnezzar?

First, it should be pointed out that Ezekiel prophesied that God would cause “many nations” to come against it (26:3), and Nebuchadnezzar was only one of those “many nations” (26:7). Supporting this, there is a shift in pronouns from singular (“he”; vv. 8-11) to plural (“they”; v. 12) in the passage, indicating that this is a sequential prophecy.²⁹ Although Nebuchadnezzar was God’s primary agent in Tyre’s downfall, he was not the only agent.³⁰ Indeed, Ezekiel himself acknowledged that Nebuchadnezzar would not be the final instrument of Tyre’s destruction (29:17-20). Tyre’s historical submission to Babylon indicated their resignation to God’s will. As such, God was willing to delay the destruction of Tyre by around 250 years until the time of Alexander the Great.³¹

Literary features. A very common feature of prophecy is that it borrows from Israel’s history to describe future experience in analogical terms.³² Here are some examples of historical events that are frequently brought up in prophecy:

The concept of creation (Genesis 1-2) is used to describe the new heavens and the new earth (Isaiah 65:17; 66:22).
The garden of Eden (Genesis 2:10-14) is alluded to again in the description of future paradise of God with the tree of life and its rivers flowing from it (Isaiah 51:3; Ezekiel 47:1-12; Revelation 2:7; 22:1-5).
The flood (Genesis 6-8) serves as a pattern of what it will be like when the Son of Man returns (Matthew 24:37-39), even as people mock (2 Peter 3:3-7).
The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 18-19; Deuteronomy 29:23) is used as an example of how God will judge the ungodly one day (2 Peter 2:6; Revelation 14:10-11; 19:20; cf. Matthew 10:15; 11:24).
The Exodus is used as the major act of deliverance in the Old Testament and is frequently referenced again as a template for how God will deliver his people once again (Isaiah 11:11-12; Zechariah 10:10-11).³³

Not only do prophecies reference earlier historical events, but they also use historical people as models to describe a future person like in the following examples:

Moses (John 5:46; Deuteronomy 18:15; Acts 7:37)
Joshua (Zechariah 3)
Elijah (Matthew 11:14)
Zerubbabel (Haggai 2:20-23)
David (2 Samuel 7; 1 Chronicles 17)

Another literary feature of prophecy is the frequent use of certain expressions or terms that convey specific thoughts and concepts. Some examples of common phrases that carry charged meaning include the following:

“In the latter days” or “in the last days” or “in the days to come.” These expressions are connected to the blessing of Israel’s sons (Genesis 49:1), the coming of the Messiah (Numbers 24:14; Hebrews 1:2), the restoration of God’s people (Isaiah 2:2; Jeremiah 49:39; Micah 4:1; Hosea 3:5), and the resurrection of believers (John 6:39-40, 44, 54).
“The day of the Lord” is not a 24-hour period but describes the specific time of God’s judgment on his enemies and salvation of his people (Amos 5:18; Joel 1:15; 2:1; 3:14; Isaiah 13:6; Ezekiel 30:3; Zephaniah 1:7, 14).
“The kingdom of God” is rooted in the promise made to David (2 Samuel 7:16) and refers to the kingdom built by the Messiah (Isaiah 9:6-7; 24:23; Micah 4:7; Obadiah 21). The kingdom of God becomes a recurring theme in the Gospels and the Pauline Epistles.

There are also common terms that are used in prophecy, such the following:

“Earth.” The word ereṣ is variably translated as “earth” or “land,” depending on the contest. In Isaiah 24 (especially verses 1, 3-6, 16, 17, 18-21), it likely refers to the whole world because verse 21 contrasts it with heaven. But sometimes this term is used in contrast against the gentiles, in which case, the translation “land” is used in reference to the land of Israel.
“Sea.” In prophecy, it may represent a large multitude of people, rather than just a body of water. This is the case in Daniel 7:2-3 where the four great world empires arise from the sea.
“The North.” This term variably refers to Assyria, Babylon, and Medo-Persia. This is because these historical enemies from the East had to approach Israel from the North because the desert topography prevented a direct westward attack. This term is also applied more broadly to global enemies of all sorts in prophecy, such as Syria (Daniel 11:6-40) and Gog, Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal (Ezekiel 38-39; Revelation 19:17-18; 20:8).

Apocalyptic literature is filled with symbolic imagery of all sorts (e.g., Daniel 7-12; Zechariah; Matthew 24-25; 2 Thessalonians, Revelation). These include cosmic signs in the skies, spirits that have the appearance of animals or insects, scrolls, bowls, trumpets, etc.

These symbols are sometimes explained in the immediate context (e.g., Daniel 2:37-44; 8:20-21; Revelation 1:20; 4:5).
Some symbols are based on Old Testament imagery (e.g., the tree of life in Revelation 2:7; 22:2 harkens back to the Genesis 2:9; 3:24).
Other symbols are based on local customs or context (e.g., the “lukewarm” water of Laodicea in Revelation 3:16 is contrasted with the hot medicinal water of neighboring Hierapolis and the cool refreshing water of neighboring Colossae; unlike the two other cities, the lukewarm water of Laodicea was piped in and infamous for its foul taste).³⁴

Footnotes

1
It is estimated that around 27% of the Bible is prophetic. According to one author, the only books without any explicit predictive material are Ruth, the Song of Songs, Philemon, and 3 John. Payne, J. Barton. Encyclopedia of Biblical Prophecy: The Complete Guide to Scriptural Predictions and Their Fulfillment. Baker Books, 1997, pp. 631-682.
2
It is in this sense that William Perkins, the Father of the Puritans, wrote the book, “The Art of Prophesying,” in reference to preaching. “Preaching the Word is prophesying in the name and on behalf of Christ.” It serves multiple purposes: “Preaching has a twofold value: (1) It is instrumental in gathering the church and bringing together all of the elect; (2) It drives away the wolves from the folds of the Lord.” Perkins, Williams. The Art of Prophesying. Banner of Truth Trust, 2002, pp. 3, 7.
3
The first six of these are summarized by Kaiser and Silva. But the list is not meant to be exhaustive nor definitive. “Not all prophecies, of course, fit every one of the six characteristics given here. But where these exceptions exist, they still exhibit the general thrust and spirit of all six descriptions.” Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 192ff.
4
In contrast, alleged “prophecies” from psychics are so vague that they can be shaped to mean almost anything by the wildest imagination. Take, for example, the popular claim that Michel de Nostredame (better known as “Nostradamus,” b. December 14, 1503), predicted all sorts events centuries before they happened, including the great fire of London, the assassination of JFK, the landing on the moon, and even the attack on New York City on 9/11. But a closer inspection of Nostradamus’ so-called prophecies leaves much doubt about this claim. The most famous of his “prophecies” is contained his work “The Centuries” (which contains 100 quatrains [four-line poems]). In Century 1, quatrain 26, he wrote:

“The great man will be struck down in the day by a thunderbolt.
An evil deed, foretold by the bearer of a petition.
According to the prediction another falls at night time.
Conflict at Reims, London, and pestilence in Tuscany.”

Many have claimed that the above quatrain is a “clear” prediction of the assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, along with the murder of his brother, Robert F. Kennedy on June 6, 1968 after being shot shortly after midnight. Yet others have interpreted the same “prophecy” to refer to the taking over of Czechoslovakia by Adolf Hitler, the subsequent resignation of President Edvard Beneš in 1938, and the dissensions over the matter between France and England. As is evident, the “clear” prediction given by Nostradamus is not so clear after all, but subject to considerable ambiguity. The predictions of Nostradamus can be applied to a multitude of different situations and be construed to fit. Comfort, Ray. Nostradamus: Attack on America. Bridge-Logos Publishers, 2001, pp. 2, 24, 60, 61. Nostradamus. “The Centuries.” Internet Sacred Text Archive. Sacred-texts.com. July 14, 2024. URL: https://sacred-texts.com/nos/cen1eng.htm.
5
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 193.
6
France, R.T. The New International Commentary of the New Testament: The Gospel According to Matthew. Eerdmans, 2007, pp. 886-931.
7
“The message Daniel received was a prophetic (and very selective) overview of the flow of history from the time of Daniel in the late sixth century BC until the end of the world, the final climactic conflict and victory of God… Daniel 8 provided an overview of world history… in its sweeping scope. Yet what is immediately remarkable about Daniel 11 is the depth of detail and specificity with which it covers some of the predicted events. In fact, so accurate are some of these details that many [liberal] scholars have argued that the chapter must have been written after the events that it purports to anticipate.” Duguid, Iain M. Reformed Expository Commentary: Daniel. P & R Pub, 2008, p. 193. Emphasis mine. See also, Young, Edward J. The Prophecy of Daniel: A Commentary. Eerdmans, 1949, pp. 165-182, 231-253.
8
There appears to be a Messianic awareness in early biblical history. This is why Jesus was able to say, “Your father Abraham rejoiced to see My day, and he saw it and was glad” (John 8:56).
9
Recall, Balaam does not want to give the prophecy as is. He had no intention of blessing Israel, but to curse them. Balaam was a hired gun that Balak wanted to use to take down Israel.
10
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 195.
11
There is some debate about whether these invaders were literally locusts or if they were metaphorical of a human army (such as those seen with the Babylonian or Assyrian invasions). Stuart, Douglas. Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 31: Hosea-Jonah. Thomas Nelson, 1987, pp. 232-234.
12
Locust plagues are apparently quite destructive. Even as recently as the year 2000, there have been reports of titanic swarms of locusts—estimated to be around tens of billions—attacking the Horn of Africa (most intensely, Kenya, Somalia, and Ethiopia), devastating crops and flattening farms. It is said to be the worst outbreak in 70 years. The United Nations and Agriculture Organization estimated that the locusts threaten around 10% of the world’s population. It can takes days upon days to bury the dead locusts after the plague is over, even with the help of bulldozers! There can be “40 million to 80 million locusts packed in half a square mile. They bulldoze pasturelands in dark clouds the size of football fields and small cities. In northern Kenya… one swarm was reported to be 25 miles long by 37 miles wide — it would blanket the city of Paris 24 times over.” Baskar, Pranav. “Locusts Are A Plague Of Biblical Scope In 2020. Why? And … What Are They Exactly?” NPR. National Public Radio. June 14, 2020. URL: https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2020/06/14/876002404/locusts-are-a-plague-of-biblical-scope-in-2020-why-and-what-are-they-exactly.
13
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, pp. 224-226.
14
“Edom, indeed becomes in the Old Testament a kind of metonymy for ‘hostile nations.’ Israel’s estranged brother nation opposed its kin at every possible point from the time of the exodus (Numbers 20:14-21) until the Babylonian conquest of Judah and Jerusalem, which it welcomed and abetted… Edom’s self-aggrandizement at the expense of Judean territory in the wake of Judah’s 586 BC collapse was particularly galling… [The prophet predicts how] the currently helpless Judeans, now unable to prevent Edomite crimes against them, will then subdue Edom and, with God’s help and in loyalty to his covenant, reap the blessings of the new age.” Ibid, pp. 421-422.
15
There is some variation in how some commentators describe this division, but I follow the outline given by France, R.T. The New International Commentary of the New Testament: The Gospel According to Matthew. Eerdmans, 2007, pp. 885-967. Other commentators, for example, believe that the first question is answered in chapter 24, verses 4-28, and the second in verses 29 and following, which is laid out by Davis, Dean. High King of Heaven: Discovering the Master Keys to the Great End Time Debate. Redemption Press, 2014, pp. 530-540.
16
“The disciples are thinking of a single coming in the near future, when Jesus, acting in God’s power, will bring the present evil age to a close and usher in a global theocratic Kingdom… However, with the benefit of biblical hindsight, we know better. We know that Jesus is actually thinking of two comings, separated by at least two millennia, yet united by a common character and purpose. The first is a providential coming at the hand of the Roman general Titus, a coming that will destroy Jerusalem… the second is a supernatural coming at the hand of the glorified Christ, a coming that will destroy the entire evil world system and bring in the World to come… [this is] prophetic perspective (or blending, or foreshortening)… This pattern is especially prominent in certain OT prophecies of the Day of the LORD, wherein the prophets spoke not only of an imminent local judgment (whether on Israel or her neighboring nations), but also of a final global judgment (Isaiah 2:5-22; 13:1ff; Joel 2:1-2-20; Zephaniah 1:1ff). Such is the case here. In the Olivet Discourse, the Lord blends predictions of an imminent (and providential) coming of Christ in 70 AD with predictions of an eschatological (and supernatural) coming of Christ at the end of the age. He blends predictions of a local judgment of the city of Jerusalem with predictions of a global judgment of the City of Man.” Davis, Dean. High King of Heaven: Discovering the Master Keys to the Great End Time Debate. Redemption Press, 2014, p. 531.
17
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 196. Emphasis mine.
18
Ibid, p. 197.
19
Garlington, Donald. Reigning with Christ: Revelation 20:1-6 and the Question of the Millennium. Reformation and Revival Journal. 1997; 6(2):60-61.
20
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 208.
21
Beale, G. K. Handbook on the New Testament Use of The Old Testament: Exegesis and Interpretation. Baker Academic, 2012, p. 16.
22
Walton, John H. Wisdom for Faithful Reading: Principles and Practices for Old Testament Interpretation. IVP Academic, 2023, pp. 75, 179.
23
“Throughout the church’s tradition, there have also been those who have seen Isaiah 7:13-14 as a direct verbal prophecy of Jesus and fulfilled only in him (which is less likely in light of the above discussion), while many modern commentators see no predictive element at all in Isaiah 7:13-14, which denies the authority of the text.” Beale, G. K. Handbook on the New Testament Use of The Old Testament: Exegesis and Interpretation. Baker Academic, 2012, p. 16-17. Emphasis mine.
24
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, p. 200.
25
Ibid, pp. 197-198.
26
“Other unconditional covenants are God’s covenant with the seasons (Genesis 18:21-22); God’s promise of a dynasty, kingdom, and a dominion for David and his descendant(s) (2 Samuel 7:8-16); God’s promise of the New Covenant (Jeremiah 31:31-34); and God’s promise of the new heavens and the new earth (Isaiah 65:17-19; 66:22-24). These promises pertain to our salvation.” Ibid, p. 200.
27
Other examples include the prophecy against King Ahab his murder of Naboth (1 Kings 21:17-29) and the prophecy of the destruction of Damascus (Isaiah 17:1). Ibid, p. 201.
28
Ibid, p. 202; and Block, Daniel I. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament: The Book of Ezekiel, Chapter 25-49. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998, pp. 31-32, 42.
29
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, pp. 201-202.
30
Block, Daniel I. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament: The Book of Ezekiel, Chapter 25-49. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998, pp. 40, 42.
31
Moreover, there is also a conditional aspect of this prophecy. “These verses [19 and 20] reaffirm that even if Yahweh’s plans have been altered, he has forgotten neither his word nor his agent… This oracle… was not a mark of divine impotence or amnesia. God is aware that the oracles against the island fortress [Tyre] have not been fulfilled as originally delivered… The primary function of [Ezekiel’s] preaching [was] to persuade them to repent of their sins and to acknowledge Yahweh, and to submit to his claims on their lives. Prophetic proclamation is more than fortune-telling; it is rhetorically charged with exuberance, passion, hyperbole, figurative language, abstraction, whatever means it will take to evoke a response in the hearer.” Block, Daniel I. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament: The Book of Ezekiel, Chapter 25-49. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1998, pp. 151, 154; cf. pp. 149-150. Emphasis mine.
32
Kaiser, Walter C., and Moisés Silva. An Introduction to Biblical Hermeneutics: The Search for Meaning (Revised and Expanded Edition). Zondervan, 2007, pp. 202-204.
33
This is an excellent book on this topic: Roberts, Alastair. Echoes of Exodus: Tracing Themes of Redemption through Scripture. Crossway, 2018.
34
Beale, Gregory K. The New International Greek Testament Commentary. The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text. W.B. Eerdmans, 1999, p. 303.

Footnotes

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