4. Literary Genres and Features (Wisdom and Poetry)

Literary Genres and Features: Wisdom and Poetry

Wisdom and poetry make up one-third of the Bible (i.e., bigger than the entire New Testament itself), and includes Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Songs.¹ This is called wisdom literature because it presents knowledge gained from experience reflective of God’s way. One of the chief characteristics of wisdom literature is parallelism (see below). Another chief characteristic is its unique structure, which can oftentimes be terse (like in the book of Proverbs) where they pack a punch despite an economy of words.

Wisdom literature is often composed of general observations about life. These observations should not be taken as absolute, airtight promises. In this way, the proverbs in the Bible are similar to the contemporary proverbs spoken today. For example, Proverbs 22:6 states, “Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it.” But this is not a guarantee that if a parent raises a child in God’s ways that he/she will not rebel against it; on the flip side, if a child departs from the way of righteousness, it does not necessarily mean that his/her parents did something wrong in his/her upbringing. Importantly, if either scenario happens, it does not invalidate the Word of God.

A common mode of interpretation is to interpret the Bible literalistically. But this is not always the best method for certain genres. Not everything should be read with a wooden literalism. There are similes, metaphors, analogies, types, and shadows that should be understood figuratively or non-literally (e.g., the trees singing songs and clapping their hands in Psalm 96:12 and Isaiah 55:12). In contrast to English poetry where rhyme schemes and metrical patterns are key features, these are comparatively less important in Hebrew poetry. Below are some common literary features in the Bible that are important to recognize. Although presented here under the heading of wisdom and poetry, many of these can occur in any of the literary genres:

Parallelism. Repetition (parallelism) is a type of literary device. This is found in narratives, poetic literature, and prophecy literature.²For example, the Book of Revelation can be understood as the sample story told repetitively seven times, each from a different perspective and with a different emphasis. This is a form of progressive parallelism. Parallelism is when there is a close relationship or similarity between two or more sentences that are in a set with each other.³Sproul, R. C. Knowing Scripture: Revised Edition. IVP Books, 2009, p. 95.

Unfortunately, certain liberal scholars state that repetition is evidence of “bad editing.” For example, it has been suggested that Mark (and the other Gospel writers) confused the reporting of the feeding of the five thousand (Mark 6:33-44) and the feeding of the four thousand (Mark 8:1-9); they claim that these are not separate events but rather the same feeding. One event was mistakenly recorded as two separate events. Another example that liberal scholars often cite is the creation account from Genesis, chapters 1 and 2. Liberal scholars suggest that these are actually accounts from two separate sources, written hundreds of years apart, but these (supposedly conflicting accounts) were later placed together by an independent editor.

In response to this, we need to realize that repetition is not a sign of “bad editing.” But rather it is an intentional literary device. Repetition is often used for emphasis and to draw attention to a particular point or to provide different perspectives.⁴The declaration, “My wife is beautiful, and my wife is a delight to my eyes” is another example of the same idea stated twice. This is not evidence of “bad editing” nor evidence that I have two wives.

There are three major types of parallelism:
1. Synonymous parallelism is the most common form of repetition. It is where one idea (A) is stated twice in slightly different ways (A-A). An example is Proverbs 1:20: “Wisdom calls aloud outside; She raises her voice in the open squares.” The two statements essentially mean the same thing. They are synonymous.
  
  Other examples include Proverbs 19:5: “A false witness will not go unpunished, and he who speaks lies will not escape.” Also, Psalm 95:6: “Oh come, let us worship and bow down; Let us kneel before the Lord our Maker.”
  
  This type of parallelism is found throughout the poetic literature and the prophets (e.g., Amos 5:24), but is also seen in the narrative literature (e.g., Genesis 4:23 contains two sequential examples of synonymous parallelism).⁵ It is important to recognize this as a literary device. Failure to do so can lead to interpretative (or even doctrinal) errors (see below)!
  
  One of the most famous examples of synonymous parallelism that has been misunderstood by the greater church comes from Mary’s Magnificat in Luke 1:46-47: “My soul magnifies the Lord, and my spirit has rejoiced in God my Savior” (Luke 1:46-47).⁶ A common error is to draw the conclusion that the soul and spirit are separate entities; this leads to the incorrect teaching that man is made up of three parts, body-soul-spirit.⁷ Rather, man is actually two parts, body and spirit; the terms soul and spirit in reference to man are used interchangeably throughout the Bible.⁸
2. Antithetical parallelism is used to contrast two different ideas (A-B). An example is from Proverbs 10:1: “A wise son makes a glad father, but a foolish son is the grief of his mother.” It is not that a wise son only makes his father happy (at the exclusion of his mother), or that a foolish son only brings sorrow to his mother (with the father being indifferent). But this literary device is setup in such a way to teach the point that a wise son brings gladness whereas a foolish son brings grief.
  
  They may be saying the same thing, but by way of negation.⁹ In Proverbs 27:6, we find another contrasting statement: “Faithful are the wounds of a friend, but the kisses of an enemy are deceitful.” The actions of a friend are compared with those of an enemy. Other examples include Psalm 1:6; Proverbs 10:4; 13:1; Matt. 7:18; and 10:39.
  
  In a slightly different form, we read in Hosea 6:6: “For I desire mercy and not sacrifice.” Jesus applied this verse to defend His fellowship with tax collectors and sinners (Matthew 9:13) and His disciples who plucked a handful of grain to eat on the Sabbath (Matthew 12:7). Jesus is not saying that I desire “A” but do not care about “B”; Rather, what he is saying is, “What’s the point of ritual sacrifices if you don’t show mercy? Show mercy first, then God will accept your sacrifice.”¹⁰
3. Synthetic parallelism is a bit more complex than the preceding forms.¹¹ Here, a thought on one line is developed further in the next (A-A’-A’’). It is also called a “staircase parallelism” where one thing builds on another. For example, look at Psalm 29:1-2:
  
  “Give unto the Lord, O you mighty ones,
  Give unto the Lord glory and strength.
  Give unto the Lord the glory due to His name;
  Worship the Lord in the beauty of holiness.”
  
  Here, the psalmist keeps stacking ideas one on top of each other. Other examples include Psalm 92:9; 93:3; 96:1-2a; 148:7-13; and Matthew 5:42; 6:6b; 7:7.

Case Study: The ability to recognize parallelisms can help to resolve apparent difficulties in a text.¹² Let’s take Isaiah 45:6-7 (in the KJV) as an example:

⁶That they may know from the rising of the sun, and from the west, that there is none beside me. I am the Lord, and there is none else.
⁷I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the Lord do all these things.

Does this passage teach that God creates evil? But the Reformed confessions teach that God is not the author of sin.¹³ How can we reconcile the apparent contradiction?

Solution: “The resolution of this problematic passage is simple if we recognize the obvious presence of an antithetic parallelism in it. In the first part light is set in contrast with darkness. In the second part peace is set in contrast with evil. What is the opposite of peace? This kind of ‘evil’ is contrasted not with goodness but with ‘peace.’ The New American Standard Bible reads, ‘Causing well-being and creating calamity.’ That is a more accurate rendition of this thought expressed by antithetic parallelism. The point of the passage is that ultimately God brings the blessing of well-being and peace to a godly people but visits them with calamity when he acts in judgment. That is a long way from a notion of being the creator of evil originally.”¹⁴

Acrostic. This is a type of writing (often a poem) in which the first letter of each line (or section) spells out a word, message or alphabet (i.e., A, B, C, D, E…). Psalm 119, for example, is an acrostic—beginning with Aleph (א), Beth (ב), Gimel (ג), Daleth (ד), …, etc.—with 22 sections, corresponding with each letter of the alphabet, and 8 verses each for a total of 176 verses. While Psalm 119 is the most famous and complete acrostic, there are also others too (e.g., Psalms 25; 34; 37; 111; 112; 145; Proverbs 31:10-31; Lamentations 1-4). James Montgomery Boice lists several reasons why acrostics could have been used by the original authors:

“(1) It may be an artistic device used to add a certain beauty to the psalm, as rhyme does in our poetry; (2) It may mean that the subject is being covered completely, from ‘A’ to ‘Z,’ as we might say. This is a particularly attractive possibility in regard to Psalm 119 which explores the nature and value of the written Word of God exhaustively; and (3) It may have been a mnemonic device designed to assist the young in learning poetry. In fact, that is probably why many Old Testament passages are poetry itself rather than prose. Poetry is easier than prose to memorize.”¹⁵

Simile. A simile is a comparison using “like” or “as.” These are found throughout the Bible, for example, in Proverbs 11:22: “As a ring of gold in a swine’s snout, so is a lovely woman who lacks discretion.” Other examples include Proverbs 25:25 and Psalm 42:1.

It is important to note that when two things are compared, they are not supposed to be considered the same in all respects. Take, for example, Psalm 133:1-2 where King David says that unity within the family is like oil dripping down Aaron’s beard onto the edges of his robes. He does not mean that a united family is messy and greasy; rather, he is likely thinking of how the fragrant oil flows from the head down to benefit every part of the body at the anointing of the high priest.¹⁶

Metaphor. A metaphor is like a simile but the comparison is stated without the words “like” or “as.” Another example is Luke 13:32 where Jesus refers to Herod as a fox. Herod, obviously, was not literally a fox!

Another example is from John 6:48-50. Here, Jesus uses the literal example of manna and metaphorically compares himself to it as the bread of life. Similarly, at the Last Supper, Jesus takes the bread and says, “This is My body which is given for you” (Luke 22:19). There are real consequences in how we discern the presence of a literary device.

“Differences in literary analysis have led to serious divisions in the church over the meaning of the Lord’s Supper. One of the very few issues over which Luther and Calvin were never able to reach agreement was the very matter of the meaning of these words of Jesus. At one point in negotiations between representatives of Calvin and Luther, Luther kept repeating, ‘Hoc est corpus meum; hoc est corpus meum” (This is my body). Regarding these words Luther wrote: ‘These are the words on which we take our stand. They are so simply and clearly stated that even they, our adversaries, must confess that it is difficult to interpret them otherwise.’ But others disagreed over his interpretation. Surely, given both Luther and Calvin’s view of the authority of the Bible, if they could have agreed as to what the Bible was actually saying, they both would have submitted to it.”¹⁷

For both similes and metaphors, we need to beware of reading too much into the comparison.¹⁸

Allegory. An allegory is an extended metaphor. It is a story intended to teach us something. The Pilgrim’s Progress is one of the most famous allegories in Christian culture. Every character and each situation in the story refer to a different aspect of Christian life. An example from the Bible is Paul’s reference to Hagar and Sarah as representing two covenants, allegorically speaking (Galatians 4:24 KJV, NASB, ESV). Other examples of allegories include the vine that was taken out of Egypt in Psalm 80:8-15—a reference to Israel’s exodus—and the image of a man drinking water out of his own cistern in Proverbs 5:13-23—a picture of marital fidelity—or the extended metaphors of aging and death in Ecclesiastes 12:1-7.

Some people group parables together with allegories as extended similes (e.g., when Jesus says, “The kingdom of heaven is like…” in Matthew 13). However, others point out that parables are different than allegories, as allegories do not necessarily have any correspondence with truth, whereas parables are connected with reality. (We will look at this in further detail in a future lesson about parables).

Hyperbole. This is a great exaggeration or overstatement. Failure to recognize hyperbole can lead to significant problems. In Matthew 13:32, Jesus refers to the mustard seed as the least (smallest) of all seeds. This is the subject of much modern criticism as the mustard seeds, in fact, is not the smallest of all seeds. Critics have then concluded that the Bible contains errors. But we need to recognize that Jesus is not making an absolute scientific statement, but rather employing hyperbole.¹⁹

Other examples of hyperbole include Psalm 6:6, “I am weary with my groaning; All night I make my bed swim; I drench my couch with my tears.” Certainly, the Psalmist, David, did not literally flood his bed with weeping. Furthermore, upon completing the work on Solomon’s temple, it was said that the sacrifices were so abundant that they “could not be counted or numbered for multitude” (2 Chronicles 5:6), a hyperbole to communicate enthusiastic worship (cf. Revelation 7:9).²⁰ Moreover, on the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus said, “If your right eye causes you to sin, pluck it out and cast it from you” and “If your right hand causes you to sin, cut it off and cast it from you” (Matthew 5:29, 30). Here, the point is that we need to take drastic steps to remove anything that would cause us to sin, not an endorsement to mutilate ourselves.

Merism (merismus). This is a rhetorical device where 2 extreme contrasting parts or concepts are used to represent the whole. For example, when a person says they are looking “high and low” for their missing glasses, they mean that they have looked “everywhere.” In the song of Hannah (found in 1 Samuel 2), we see the frequent use of merismus: verse 5b describes a barren woman in contrast to a very fertile woman; verse 6 describes death and life; verses 7 and 8 describe poverty and riches; and, verse 4 describes weakness and strength. One of the main ideas behind all of this is that God is sovereign over everything. There is no aspect of human existence outside of God’s control.

Synecdoche and metonymy are similar devices. A synecdoche is when one part is named but it represents the whole. For example, in common language, “wheels” can be used to refer to an entire vehicle or car, not just the tires. In this regard, the Reformed have commonly interpreted the Ten Commandments to have broader application than what is narrowly written in the text. John Calvin refers to them as synecdoches.²¹ In order to understand the fullness of God’s law, Calvin asks us to consider the intention underlying each commandment and the positive/negative corollaries:

“If this pleases God, the opposite displeases him; if this displeases, the opposite pleases him; if he commands this, he forbids the opposite; if he forbids this, he enjoins the opposite.”²²

When something is forbidden, God expects that we not only abstain from it, but that we express the positive virtue as well:

“In this commandment, ‘You shall not kill,’ men’s common sense will see only that we must abstain from wronging anyone or desiring to do so. Besides this, it contains, I say, the requirement that we give our neighbor’s life all the help we can… God forbids us to hurt or harm a brother unjustly, because he wills that the brother’s life be dear and precious to us. So at the same time he requires those duties of love which can apply to its preservation.”²³

Closely related, metonymy is a literary device where something is referred to by another thing or concept that is closely related. For example, sometimes, when people speak of “the crown,” they are actually referring to the British monarchy. In the Bible, a common metonymy is the word “horn,” which represents strength and power. So, when the Psalmist refers to God as the “horn of my salvation” (Psalm 18:2), it is an acknowledgment that deliverance is by God’s strength and power alone (cf. 1 Samuel 2:1).²⁴

Irony. The Bible frequently employs irony of all sorts.²⁵ Verbal irony is when words are used to convey something that is opposite to their literal meaning. An example of irony in the Bible is found in 2 Samuel 6:20 where David is met by his wife, Michal, upon returning the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem. She says to him, “How glorious was the king of Israel today, uncovering himself today in the eyes of the maids of his servants, as one of the base fellows shamelessly uncovers himself!” Another example is found in John 19:3 where the Roman soldiers mock Jesus by proclaiming, “Hail, King of the Jews!”²⁶

Euphemism. This is a delicate way of saying something that may otherwise be more vulgar or embarrassing. For example, we may excuse ourselves to go to the “restroom.” This is a euphemism because we go to the “restroom” not, in fact, to rest but to use the toilet.

This literary device is also used in the Bible. In the Book of Judges, we are told of a man named Ehud who assassinates Eglon, the king of Moab (3:15-23). Afterwards, Eglon’s servants come looking for their king, only to find the doors of the upper room/parlor were locked. They said, “Surely he covereth his feet in his summer chamber” (v. 24 KJV) and chose not to disturb him. This is a euphemism (in Hebrew) for using the restroom.²⁷ A possible origin of this phrase is the fact that a person literally covered his feet when he used the restroom because he would shed his garments, which would then fall to the ground.

Similarly, at one point when King Saul was pursuing David, King Saul went into a cave to “cover his feet” (1 Samuel 24:3 KJV)—which other translations more aptly render as Saul going in “to attend to his needs” (NKJV) or “to relieve himself” (ESV). There are several other places where references to “feet” in the Old Testament may be euphemisms. In Isaiah 6, the prophet describes Seraphim as having six wings, “with two he covered his face, with two he covered his feet, and with two he flew” (Isaiah 6:2). It is possible that the use of the word “feet” here refers to something different (i.e., a “less noble part of the body”).²⁸

Likewise, in the Book of Ruth, we are told that Ruth approaches Boaz at night and uncovered his “feet” (Ruth 3:4, 7). It is possible that this choice of words is intended to be provocative (e.g., like when someone exposes their legs in our culture).²⁹ Recall, in this story, Naomi instructs Ruth to wash herself, put on her best clothes, and to wait for nightfall. Ruth was going to Boaz with the intention of asking him to fulfill the promises of a Levirate marriage (Deuteronomy 25:5-10; cf. Genesis 38:6-10ff). When Boaz awakes to find Ruth, she propositions him (3:9). Boaz responds by faithfully providing for her and makes provision to take her as his bride.

What makes this story even more dramatic is the fact that the threshing floor, in Israel’s history, was also the place where prostitution happened at night (cf. Hosea 9:1). Thus, the narrative is intended to elicit shock. We expect scandal. But, instead, we learn about the righteousness of Boaz. Unlike Onan (Genesis 38:8-10), he did not take advantage of Ruth, but rather took care of her virtue. Eventually, Boaz and Ruth gave birth to Obed, who was the father of Jesse, who was the father of David. The narrative shows us that this is the type of righteousness that marks the line of the Messiah. Recognizing the euphemism helps us to understand the significance of this story.

Side note: Sometimes euphemisms are introduced by Bible translators who feel embarrassed by the words in the original language. One such example is from 1 Samuel. In the days of Eli, the Philistines captured the Ark of the Covenant. 1 Samuel 5:6 tells us that God punished them by inflicting “tumors” on them. But literally, they developed hemorrhoids.

There are many other figures of speech that occur in the Bible. The most common and important ones were covered above. When interpreting a passage with a figure of speech, it is important to recognize the normal range of usage and to avoid over reading into the text.

Footnotes

1
The Old Testament is filled with poetry; only 7 books of the Old Testament have no poetry (i.e., Leviticus, Ruth, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, Haggai, and Malachi). Poetry frequently occurs in the New Testament too! This includes certain quotations (e.g., Acts 17:28; Titus 1:12; 1 Corinthians 15:33), early Christian hymns (e.g., Philippians 2:5-11; 1 Timothy 3:16; 2 Timothy 2:11-13), passages modeled after Old Testament poetry (e.g., Luke 1:46-55; 68-79; 2:14, 29-32), poetic laments (e.g., Luke 13:34-35), poetic discourses (e.g., John 14:1-7), and songs (e.g., Revelation 4:8, 11; 5:9-10, 12-13; 7:15-17; 11:17-18; 15:3-4; 18:2, 14-24; 19:6-8). Ibid, pp. 139-140.
2
For example, the Book of Revelation can be understood as the sample story told repetitively seven times, each from a different perspective and with a different emphasis. This is a form of progressive parallelism.
3
Sproul, R. C. Knowing Scripture: Revised Edition. IVP Books, 2009, p. 95.
4
The declaration, “My wife is beautiful, and my wife is a delight to my eyes” is another example of the same idea stated twice. This is not evidence of “bad editing” nor evidence that I have two wives.
5
The two sequential parallels are as follows:

A: Then Lamech said to his wives: “Adah and Zillah, hear my voice;
A: Wives of Lamech, listen to my speech!
B: For I have killed a man for wounding me,
B: Even a young man for hurting me.”
6
Notice, this is poetry embedded within historical narrative, and should be interpreted as such.
7
Similar misunderstanding has arisen from Hebrews 4:12 and 1 Thessalonians 5:23.
8
“There is no essential, substantial difference between the two [spirit and soul]. ‘Spirit’ and ‘soul’ denote the same inner person but viewed from different sides. This is proven by the fact that… the same qualities, states, and activities are sometimes attributed to the spirit and sometimes to the soul, that both words often stand in parallelism with each otherand alternative with each other…” Bavinck, Herman. Biblical and Religious Psychology. Reformed Free Publishing Association, 2024, p. 61. “Trichotomism [i.e., the view that human beings are made up of three parts—body, soul and spirit—where soul and spirit are essentially different]… is wrong. Soul and spirit in Scripture repeatedly occur in parallelism and interchangeably [Matthew 10:28; 1 Corinthians 7:34; James 2:26].” Bavinck, Herman. Reformed Dogmatics. Volume 2: God and Creation. Baker Academic, 2004, pp. 555-556.
9
Sproul, R. C. Knowing Scripture: Revised Edition. IVP Books, 2009, p. 95.
10
A similar principle is found in Matthew 23:23 and Micah 6:8.
11
Sometimes, this is also used as a catch-all for miscellaneous parallelisms that don’t fit anywhere else.
12
Sproul, R. C. Knowing Scripture: Revised Edition. IVP Books, 2009, pp. 96-97.
13
Westminster Confession of Faith, chapter 3, paragraph 1; Canons of Dort, First Head of Doctrine, article 15; and Belgic Confession, article 13.
14
Sproul, R. C. Knowing Scripture: Revised Edition. IVP Books, 2009, p. 97.
15
Boice, James Montgomery. “Devotional for August 14, 2017. A Bible Acrostic, Day 1.” Think & Act Biblically with James Montgomery Boice. Alliance of Confession Evangelicals, Inc. August 14, 2017. URL: https://www.thinkandactbiblically.org/a-bible-acrostic-day-1/.
16
Caird, G B. Language and Imagery of the Bible. Duckworth, 1980, p. 145.
17
Sproul, R. C. Knowing Scripture: Revised Edition. IVP Books, 2009, pp. 59-60.
18
“When the psalmist tells us that a united family is like oil dripping down Aaron’s beard on to the skirts of his robe, he is not trying to persuade us that family unity is messy, greasy, or volatile; he is thinking of the all-pervasive fragrance which so deeply impressed itself on his memory at the anointing of the high priest (Psalm 132:2).” Caird, G.B. The Language and Imagery of the Bible. Duckworth, 1980, p. 145.
19
The parables of the mustard seed and of the leaven (13:31-33) “both speak of a small, barely perceptible beginning which results in a spectacular transformation (cf. our saying, ‘Great oaks from little acorns grow’). So also the kingdom of heaven, as presented in Jesus’ ministry, may be unnoticed or disdained by most people for the time being, but the time will come when it will be impossible to ignore it… Those who despised its small beginnings (cf. Zechariah 4:10) will have to eat their words… The point of the [mustard seed] parable does not depend on its botanical accuracy; parables often exaggerate for effect.” France, R.T. The New International Commentary of the New Testament: The Gospel According to Matthew. Eerdmans, 2007, pp. 526-527.
20
Pratt, Richard L. 1 and 2 Chronicles: A Mentor Commentary. Mentor, 2006, p. 317; and Beale, Gregory K. The New International Greek Testament Commentary. The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text. W.B. Eerdmans, 1999, pp. 426-428.
21
In fact, the word “law” (particularly in the New Testament) is often used as a synecdoche to refer to Scripture as a whole, not just the legal aspects of the Pentateuch (such as in John 10:34; 12:34; 15:25; Romans 3:19; 1 Corinthians 14:21). Goswell, Greg. Text and Paratext: Book Order, Title, and Division as Keys to Biblical Interpretation. Lexham Academic, 2023, p. 15.
22
Calvin, John. Institutes of the Christian Religion. Westminster John Knox Press, 2006, p. 375. 2.8.8.
23
Ibid, pp. 375-376. 2.8.9.
24
While the eating of the forbidden fruit was specifically named as the first sin of our first parents, it is likely a synecdoche as well. G.K. Beale suggests that the eating of the forbidden fruit actually represents all of the sin and guilt that Adam and Eve committed in their rebellion against God—and even includes the initial failure of Adam to guard the temple of God from the intrusion of the unclean serpent. If we consider the “creation mandate” (i.e., Gen. 1:28: being fruitful, multiplying, filling the earth with the glory of God, subduing the creatures, ruling over creation) to be a summary of the moral law issued to Adam, then his failure to subdue the creatures and rule over the creation was the first visible demonstration of sin that climaxed with his eating of the forbidden fruit. Beale, G. K. A New Testament Biblical Theology: The Unfolding of the Old Testament in the New. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2011. p. 442; cf. p. 359.

Along these lines, the Puritans ascribed to that one act the simultaneous breaking of all Ten Commandments, which shows how Adam’s first offence was an exceedingly great sin. Here is an excerpt from The Marrow of Modern Divinity (authored by Edward Fisher with notations by Thomas Boston, Ross-shire, Scotland: Christian Focus Publications, 2009. pp. 57-58). “In that one sinful act… intolerable injury was done unto God; as, first, his dominion and authority in his holy command was violated. Secondly, his justice, truth, and power, in his most righteous threatenings, were despised. Thirdly, his most pure and perfect image, wherein man was created in righteousness and true holiness, was utterly defaced. Fourthly, his glory, which, by an active service, the creature should have brought to him, was lost and despoiled… Adam, at that one clap, broke all the Ten Commandments…

1. He chose himself another god when he followed the devil.
2. He idolized and deified his own belly; as the apostle’s phrase is [cf. Philippians 3:19], ‘He made his belly his god.’
3. He took the name of God in vain, when he believed him not.
4. He kept not the rest and estate wherein God had set him.
5. He dishonoured his Father who was in heaven; and therefore his days were not prolonged in that land which the Lord his God had given him.
6. He massacred himself and all his posterity.
7. From Eve he was a virgin, but in eyes and mind he committed spiritual fornication [cf. James 4:4].
8. He stole, like Achan, that which God had set aside not to be meddled with; and this his stealth is that which troubles all Israel—the whole world [cf. Joshua 7:16-26].
9. He bare [false] witness against God, when he believed the witness of the devil before him.
10. He coveted an evil covetousness, like Amnon, which cost him his life (2 Sam. 13), and all his progeny. Now, whosever consider what a nest of evils here were committed at one blow… that we are compelled every way to commend the justice of God [that is, to justify God], and to condemn the sin of our first parents, saying, concerning all mankind, as the prophet Hosea does concerning Israel, ‘O Israel, thou hast destroyed thyself’ (Hos. 3:9).”
25
There is verbal irony, which is saying one thing and meaning its opposite… Second, there is dramatic irony or an irony of narrated events, wherein narrated events are turned to the opposite of the way that they appeared to be heading. Finally, there is character irony… whereby one’s true character stands in contrast with what he appears to be.” Beale, G. K. Redemptive Reversals and the Ironic Overturning of Human Wisdom. Crossway, 2019, p. 22.
26
“The soldiers do not believe that Jesus is any kind of king, and they intend their sarcastic words to be a direct attack on Jesus, whom they believe is an imposter. A reader perceives that the ‘lower’ level of the mocking is false, whereas the irony becomes apparent at the ‘higher’ level, where it is evident that the soldiers are the real victims of their own mocking, since they are crucifying the one who is, in fact, the true divine king of the universe.” Ibid, p. 23.
27
Block, Daniel Isaac. The New American Commentary. Volume 6: Judges, Ruth. Broadman & Holman, 1999, p. 167. Keil, Carl Friedrich, and Franz Delitzsch. Commentary on the Old Testament: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, I & II Samuel. Eerdmans, 1988, p. 298.
28
Young, Edward J. The Book of Isaiah. Volume 1: Chapters 1 to 18. Eerdmans, 1965, p. 241.
29
For a comparison of several possible different views, see Block, Daniel Isaac. The New American Commentary. 6, Judges, Ruth. Broadman & Holman, 1999, pp. 685-6867. See also, Hubbard, Robert L. The New International Commentary on the Old Testament: The Book of Ruth. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988, pp. 196-205.

Footnotes

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